This paper will focus on African American culture through the scope of literature, and its underdevelopment throughout history due to cultural hegemony in culture and in education. I feel that I relied good information that supported my thesis. I could narrowed my focus on the underdevelopment of African American more in my paper for my audience.

Nia Griffin

Dr. Laura Buchholz

ENGL 327W

21 November 2018

What’s Goin’ On: The Underdevelopment of African American Literature

America, at only 242 years old, is one of the youngest countries in the Western Hemisphere. Despite its youth, America has a rich and extensive history that entails a variety of perspectives. The history of America is told through the education system by the voices of the elite of America. Therefore, American history has a limited scope. The foundation of America was forged on backs of multiple cultures, but the history of these cultures were almost completely eradicated. By virtue of art many cultures’ stories have been revitalized. Literature/music/cinema … etc. has opened the door for these stories to be heard (Warren). Though the platform is larger than it has ever been, there is still more Discrepancies in the amount of awareness of other cultures histories. This paper will focus on African American culture through the scope of literature, and its under development throughout history due to cultural hegemony.     

Introduction to African American Literature

African-American literature is a genre that has grown rapidly over the past 50 years in America through the perpetual repression. Even with its growth, many Americans are still unacquainted or minimally acquainted with the milestones of African American history (Warren). African American literature had its inception during the era of constitutionally sanctioned segregation known as Jim Crow. Punctuated by state op constitutional amendments that disfranchised black Americans throughout much of the South, legitimated by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1896 with Plessy v. Ferguson, and stumbling into decline in the 1950s, 60s, and early 70s, Jim Crow and the fight against it gave rise to, and shaped, African American literary practice (Warren). The genre credits its development from the 18th century writers such as Phyllis Wheatley or Olaudah Equiano to the Post Slavery era with writers like Paul Laurence Dunbar (Ogene).

The main concern of African-American literature has become to redeem the face of the “black” man and “his” culture from a negative perception to a positive. African American literature themes tend to focus on the interest of Black people and aspects of Black existence. For example, the role of African Americans within the larger American society, and issues such as African American culture, racism, religion, slavery, freedom, and equality (Blake). This focus began with the earliest African American writings, such as the slave narrative genre in the early 19th century, and continues through the work of many modern-day authors.
History Of African American Literature

Slave Narratives

Just like African-American history predates the emergence of the United States as an independent nation, so does African American literature. African American literature has a strong tradition of oral poetry that has been incorporated into the genre. There are many examples of oral poetry in African American culture: including spiritual spoken word, African American gospel music, blues, and rap etc … This oral poetry also shows up in the African American tradition of Christian sermons, which make use of deliberate repetition, cadence and alliteration. All of these aspects and examples of oral poetry have made their way into African American literature.   

In the American South, the indoctrination of Christianity amongst the slaves led to the lost of many of their traditional oral narratives. Slaves on the various plantations had their own folklore or mythology which would be recited accompanied by drumming and dancing. Slaves would ban together in secrecy to share the stories of their leignege, their own account of the slave trade, and the memories of times passed (Warren). Plantation owners and overseers would diligently ensure these type of gatherings would not happen, and did not allow slaves to speak their native language. The sharing of their stories could have potentially led to their death. The genre was already being repressed before it even truly began.

The earliest writings began to show themselves in the 1700s, with writers like Phyllis Wheatley, under the umbrella term slave narratives. Phyllis Wheatley was a prominent writer during the era of slave narratives, and an obvious example of cultural hegemony. She was an African American poet from 1753 to 1784. She published a book entitled Poems on Various Subjects in 1773 (Ogene). At this time, it was hard for American readers to believe that a slave girl was truly capable of writing such eloquent poetry. Wheatley forced to defend herself in court by proving she actually wrote her poetry (McGill). This displays that there was systematized methodology being used behind the standards in critiquing African American writings.

Although this petition to court was abrasive, Wheatley’s superb defensed led her to be considered the first example of African American literature by some critics (McGill). Her court summons gave way to slave narratives receiving initial recognition in the mid 19th-century. Slave narratives has been categorized broadly into three distinct forms: tales of religious redemption, tales to inspire the abolitionist movement, and tales of progress (De Jesus). The tales that were written to inspire the abolitionist struggle are supposed to be the most famous because they tend to have a strong autobiographical motif. These tales were coined as the most “literary” of all the writings of African American solely because they appealed to a educated audience. The ideal of “literary merit” set the tone for African-American Literature before it even received solidification. Because of these parameters around the literature, in the 19th-century many African American writers were purposefully overlooked or forgotten. The most notable writers of Early American Literature include Jupiter Hammon, William Wells Brown, and Frederick Douglas. These writers are frequently referenced amongst literature critics, constantly are reused in literary teachings. These writers could not have been the only literary works in existence. The critics who decided what literature was acceptable were often blinded by colorism. It is clear that many writings and writers have been eliminated from the scope of African-American literature, and there is no clear evidence that these omissions were truly based off merit.

Post-Slavery Era

Despite the repression of the genre, a number of African American writers began to emerge after the American Civil War. This era is considered “Post-slavery” even though majority of Blacks in the American south were still on working on plantations or forced to share crop. Regardless of external conditions, bodies of work were still being created. This spark of African American authorship compelled many readers in America. There were multiple authors at this time, and while their approach to writing and style vary, they all seem to possess the same central goal: the advancement of people of color. One of the prominent writers of this era was W. E. B. Du Bois. Du Bois was one of the original founders of the NAACP. At the turn of the century, Du Bois wrote highly influential collection of essays titled The Souls of Black Folk. The book’s essays on race were groundbreaking, and drew from Du Bois’s personal experiences to describe how African Americans lived in American society. The book contains Du Bois’s famous quote: “The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the colour-line” (McGill). Du Bois believed that African Americans should, because of their common interests, work together to battle prejudice and inequity.

Du Bois is not the only writer of the time. Another popular author of this time period was Booker T. Washington (1856–1915), who in many ways represented opposite views from Du Bois. Washington was an educator and the founder of the Tuskegee Institute, a Black college in Alabama. Among his published works are Up From Slavery (1901), The Future of the American Negro (1899), Tuskegee and Its People (1905), and My Larger Education (1911) (McGill). In contrast to Du Bois, who adopted a more confrontational attitude toward ending racial strife in America, Washington believed that Blacks should first lift themselves up and prove themselves the equal of whites before asking for an end to racism.

One of the last key figures in African American literature during the Post-slavery era is Marcus Garvey (1887-1940. Garvey is Jamaican writer who became  a prominent writer in America by being a publisher, journalist, and a serious crusader for Black Nationalism. He is best known as a champion of Black nationalism and the “back-to-Africa” movement, which encouraged people of African ancestry to return to their ancestral homeland. He wrote a number of essays and nonfiction books. Included in this list of authors is Paul Laurence Dunbar. Dunbar often wrote in the rural, black dialect of the day. He was the first African American poet to gain real prominence. His first book of poetry, Oak and Ivy, was published in 1893. Much of Dunbar’s work, such as When Malindy Sings (1906), which includes photographs taken by the Hampton Institute Camera Club, and Joggin’ Erlong (1906) provide revealing glimpses into the lives of rural African-Americans of the day. Though Dunbar died young, he was a prolific poet, essayist, novelist (among them The Uncalled, 1898 and The Fanatics, 1901) (McGill) and short story writer. Even though Du Bois, Washington, and Garvey were the leading African American intellectuals and authors of their time, other African American writers also rose to prominence. These writers were not fully celebrated or were not fully accepted to due the fact that they did not appeal the dominant culture. Yes, the writers listed above are worthy of their merit, but they also were assimilated and educated. There is no real way of determining whether these writers were fraternal ernizing with ideals that the majority of African Americans would disagree with behind closed doors. We were taught very specific history with very specific authors. The narrative being adhered to as African Americans might not unnecessarily be the truth, reiterating the fact African American literature has been configured despite its organic origins.

Harlem Renaissance

Moving forward through America’s history, we reach a prevalent time in African American literature: The Harlem Renaissance. The Harlem Renaissance was  from 1920 to 1940, and brought new attention to African American literature. The Harlem Renaissance marked a turning point for African American literature. Prior to this time, books by African Americans were primarily read by other Black people. With the renaissance, though, African American literature, as well as black fine art and performance art, began to be absorbed into mainstream American culture.

While the Harlem Renaissance was based in the African American community of Harlem in New York City, it existed as a larger flowering of social thought and culture. With numerous Black artists, musicians, and others producing classic works in fields from jazz to theatre, the renaissance is perhaps best known for the literature that came out of it. Among the most famous writers of the renaissance was poet Langston Hughes. Hughes first received primary attention in the 1922 with  poetry collection entitled The Book of American Negro Poetry. This book, edited by James Weldon Johnson, featured the work of the period’s most talented poets (including, among others, Claude McKay, who also published three novels, Home to Harlem, Banjo and Banana Bottom and a collection of short stories). In 1926, Hughes published another collection of poetry, The Weary Blues, and in 1930 a novel, Not Without Laughter. Perhaps, Hughes’ most famous poem is The Negro Speaks of Rivers, which he wrote as a young teen. His single, most recognized character is Jesse B. Simple, a plainspoken, pragmatic Harlemite whose comedic observations appeared in Hughes’s columns for the Chicago Defender and the New York Post. Simple Speaks His Mind (1950) is Hughes’s the best-known collection of simple stories published in book form. Until his death in 1967, Hughes published nine volumes of poetry, eight books of short stories, two novels, and a number of plays, children’s books, and translations. He was a literary force to be reckoned with. Along with Hughes is novelist Zora Neale Hurston. Hurston is the author of the classic novel Their Eyes Are Watching God (1937) (McGill). Altogether, Hurston wrote 14 books, which ranged from anthropology to short stories to novel-length fiction. Because of Hurston’s gender and the fact that her work was not seen as socially or politically relevant, her writings fell into obscurity for decades. Hurston’s work was rediscovered in the 1970s in a famous essay by Alice Walker, who found a role model in Hurston for all female African American writers (McGill).
    While Hurston and Hughes are the two most influential writers to come out of the Harlem Renaissance, there are a number of other writers that became well known during this period. They include Jean Toomer, who wrote Cane, a famous collection of stories, poems, and sketches about rural and urban Black life. Dorothy West was the author of the novel The Living is Easy, which examined the life of an upper-class Black family. Another popular renaissance writer is Countee Cullen, who described everyday black life in his poems. Cullen’s books include the poetry collections Colour (1925), Copper Sun (1927), and The Ballad of the Brown Girl (1927). Frank Marshall Davis’s poetry collections Black Man’s Verse (1935) and I am the American Negro (1937) was published by Black Cat Press, and earned him critical acclaim. Author Wallace Thurman also made an impact with his novel The Blacker the Berry: A Novel of Negro Life (1929) (McGill), which focused on intraracial prejudice between lighter-skinned and darker-skinned African Americans. Like previously mentioned, these writers did not receive the recognition they truly deserved. In African American literature, it seems there is only enough room for a select few at the top though the writers goals and experiences were shared.

Civil Rights Movement

As we continue our journey through literary history, we embark on the Civil Rights Movement.
A large migration of African Americans began during World War I, hitting its high point during World War II. During this Great Migration, Black people left the racism and lack of opportunities in the American South and settled in Northern cities like Chicago, where they found work in factories and other sectors of the economy.
This migration produced a new sense of independence in the Black community and contributed to the vibrant Black urban culture seen during the Harlem Renaissance. The migration also empowered the growing American Civil Rights movement, which made a powerful impression on Black writers during the 1940s, ’50s and ’60s. Just as Black activists were pushing to end segregation and racism and create a new sense of Black nationalism, so too were Black authors attempting to address these issues with their writings.

One of the first writers to do so was James Baldwin, whose work addressed issues of race and sexuality. Baldwin, who is best known for his novel Go Tell it on the Mountain (McGill), wrote deeply personal stories and essays while examining what it was like to be both Black and homosexual at a time when neither of these identities was accepted by American culture..

The Civil Rights time period also saw the rise of female Black poets, most notably Gwendolyn Brooks, who became the first African American to win the Pulitzer Prize when it was awarded for her 1949 book of poetry, Annie Allen. Along with Brooks, other female poets who became well known during the 1950s and ’60s are Nikki Giovanni and Sonia Sanchez. Famous playwright Lorraine Hansberry was popular as well who wrote Raisin in the Sun which focuses on a poor Black family living in Chicago. It is also important to note that a number of important essays and books about human rights were written by the leaders of the Civil Rights Movement. One of the leading examples of this is Martin Luther King, Jr.’s Letter from Birmingham Jail (McGill).  

Modern Era

Beginning in the 1970s, African American literature reached the mainstream as books by Black writers continually achieved best-selling and award-winning status. This was also the time when the work of African American writers began to be accepted by academia as a legitimate genre of American literature. This created a Black Arts Movement that was inspired by the Civil Rights Movement and Black Power Movements. At this time, African American was starting to get definition, and analyzation of the literature increased. A number of scholars and writers are generally credited with helping to promote and define African American literature as a genre during this time period. Fiction writers like Toni Morrison, Alice Walker, and poet James Emanuel.
While African American literature is well accepted in the United States, it is not without controversy. To the genre’s supporters, African American literature exists both within and outside American literature and is helping to revitalize the country’s writing. To critics, African American literature is part of a Balkanization of American literature. In addition, there are some within the African American community who do not like how their own literature sometimes showcases Black people. According to James Madison University English professor Joanne Gabbin, African American literature exists both inside and outside American literature. “Somehow African American literature has been relegated to a different level, outside American literature, yet it is an integral part,” she says.
Secondary Research

I asked a series of questions, listed below,  to three different interviewees. Ryan Bracy, the daughter of superintendent of Portsmouth, is an African American fiction writer who attended Spelman College in Atlanta, Georgia. Michele Credle is an 7th grade English department head at Churchland Middle School in Portsmouth, Va. Credle’s English degree is concentrated in African American literature.  Angela Griffin is a Literacy coach in Portsmouth, Va. Griffin has a Master’s in Reading from Old Dominion University. Each gave their viewpoints to the following questions, and they’re responses were recorded.

• As scholar of African American literature, what would you say would be the most difficult part of getting awareness of African American text? Thank
• Do you believe that African American literature influences our society as much or more than other genres of literature?
• Do you believe that African American writers receive as many accolades as writers in other genres?
• What are the biggest problems with exposure of African American literature?
• What are the defining characteristics of African American literature?
• In your opinion, do you believe African Americans really respect their own literature?

 

       Ryan Bracy believes that African Americans are still being disrespected in America; therefore, the literature is as well. Since Bracy is only 27 years old, she believes she is still connected to Black Youth. She believes the black youth has no regard for their heritage or ancestors. Since the youth are the ones that hold the future, the future of African American literature seems murky. She believes that respect for the African American community is quickly declining because of the way we choose to portray themselves. Black literature is being being tarnished because of the lost of culture appreciation and continuous systematic racism.  

Credle has a more positive perspective on African American literature. Credle believes that the genre has its ups and down, but it will prevail in spite of constant push back. Attending college in 1992 was eye opening for Credle. She only became an African American literature major because of all the spoken word nights and protest she would attend on her campus. To Credle, the antagonist of African American literature was clear: the White oppressors. Now, it seems that Black people are doing the work for their oppressors. She still believes that the literature could prevail because  the fire still exist inside the hearts of young writers. However, with the lack of proper education in the school system, especially when it comes to reading and writing, most potential young black writers are not being nurtured.

Griffin saw a dramatic shift in education from her first teaching excursion in September ‘85 until now as well as within African American literature. Griffin believes African American literature is not really taught in schools. The lesson plans just give a brief overview of the same writers, showcasing the same work, and does not evolve as it should. Griffin believes that many of her African American students do not truly recognize the extent of their own history or literature even though they are being taught in their history and reading classes. To Griffin, the education system has always been biased and has not changed. African American literature has been “Whitewashed”, subjected, and oversimplified. The education system does the genre no justice.

These different perspective showcase the underdevelopment of African American literature. All of theses women feel that the literature has gone a stray due to Black people, and our society not implementing new methods of introducing African American literature. These women are from different walks of life, have different careers, and different focuses yet their opinions all seemed to correspond with one another.

Conclusion

This view of African American literature is grounded, in many ways, in the experience of Black people in the United States. Even though African Americans have long claimed an American identity, during most of United States history they were not accepted as full citizens. As a result, they were part of America while also being outside it.
The same can be said for African American literature. While it exists fully within the framework of a larger American literature, it also exists as its own entity. As a result, new styles of storytelling and unique voices are created in isolation (De Jesus). This isolation has led African American literature to be neglected by the educational system, left to fend for itself.

Since the genre is already popular with mainstream audiences, it is possible that its ability to develop new styles and voice, or to remain “authentic,” in the words of some critics—may be a thing of the past.

 

Works Cited

 

“A Turbulent Voyage.” Edited by Floyd W. Hayes , Google Books, 1990, books.

 

Blake, Felice. “What Does It Mean To Be Black? Gendered Redefinitions of Interethnic Solidarity in Piri Thomas’s Down These Mean Streets.” Oral History Review, Oxford University Press, 19 July 2018, muse.jhu.edu/article/699339.

 

De Jesus, Michael A.  “Vision of Community in the African Diaspora: A Fresh Take on Home to Harlem and Banjo”. A Thesis, Oregon State University, 20 May 2016, file:///Users/niagriffin/Downloads/DeJesusMichaelA2016.pdf

 

“Issues and Debates in African American Literature.” UD Library Museums Press, 9 Sept. 2013, library.udel.edu/special/exhibits/issues-and-debates-in-african-american-literature/.

 

“Issues and Debates in African American Literature.”  Delaware Today, 6 Sept. 2017.

McGill, C.S. “African American Literature.” 2007 Schools Section, 2 Nov. 2002.

 

Ogene, M.S. “Black American Literature and the Problem of Racism, Slavery and Oppression in the Post Slavery Era: A Reappraisal of Dunbar’s The Sport of the Gods.” African Journal of Biotechnology, Academic Journals (Kenya), www.ajol.info/index.php/ujah/article/view/95396

 

Warren, Kenneth W. “Does African-American Literature Exist?” The Chronicle of Higher Education, The Chronicle of Higher Education, 25 Feb. 2011, www.chronicle.com/article/Does-African-American/126483.