Module 2 Discussion

How does the principle of determinism relate to computer hacking?

Clarifying information: Computer hacking is generally defined as intentionally accessing a computer without authorization or exceeding authorized access.

I believe that determinism and computer hacking have several correlations. First, computers and applications themselves are deterministic. Their code determines their behavior and sets the boundaries of what the machine or application can or cannot do. For example, computers are unable to select a random number. They run a mathematical algorithm based on various inputs, such as the current date, time, or temperature to calculate a “random” number. Therefore, a computer hacker is simply exploiting this predetermined design vulnerability to gain unauthorized access to a system. 

The chain of events leading up to the hack may also be considered deterministic. A hacker would need to perform reconnaissance on the intended target, and research vulnerabilities specific to that system in order to plan their attack. Known vulnerabilities have published exploitation tools available on the dark web. The creation, publication, and availability of that tool was based on the actions of another person. Each step in this process could be considered a deterministic chain of events that led to the hack.

A hacker’s motivation may also be considered deterministic. Whether they are driven by money or a cause, there is a driving force behind why a hacker does what they do. Some hackers are professionals, paid for their services. Others may sell information stolen from a hack for personal gain. There are some that hack for a cause they believe in, such as an environmental activist hacking an oil company’s website. Regardless of the reason, some sequence of events leads to an individual deciding to engage in these behaviors. 

Module 3 Discussion

Security breaches are common in organizations, and many of these breaches are caused by human errors. What are some ways to reduce human errors and improve security?

Human error is often seen as the weakest link in any cybersecurity program. Some of the many attacks that target end users include phishing campaigns, spoofed messages from someone higher up in the company, and ransomware. Phishing attacks seek to gain login credentials with the hopes of gaining access to confidential information. Social engineering attacks, such as a spoofed email appearing to be sent from an executive at the company, may ask users to send confidential information. Ransomware seeks to extort the company out of money to decrypt the hijacked system. All of these attacks prey on user’s lack of awareness. Therefore, the best defense against these attacks is a strong training program that informs users of these and other risks, as well as how to spot these types of attacks. By drawing attention to these common attack vectors, users may be more skeptical of emails they receive and links they might be asked to click on.

Unfortunately, some users may still inadvertently fall for these attacks. In those cases, technical controls are needed to help prevent them. To mitigate phishing attacks, email security can filter messages, while two-factor authentication can provide an additional security layer if an account is compromised. Sender validation by using Sender Policy Framework (SPF) validation can prevent external senders from spoofing email addresses for your domain. Endpoint protection software can detect and prevent ransomware before it has a chance to encrypt a file system. Combining these kinds of technical controls with a strong end-user training program will go a long way in helping protect a company from cyber attacks. 

Module 4 Discussion

Post a comment in the discussion board answering the question: “Apply the phrase victim precipitation to cyber victimization” 

Victim precipitation refers to how certain behaviors may increase the chance that someone will be targeted for a crime. In relation to cyber victimization, certain behaviors, such as using weak passwords, posting personal information publicly online, and downloading files from unknown sources, will increase the likelihood that a person could be hacked or have their identity stolen. For example, most people use the name of a pet or loved one as their password. Sharing that information publicly online gives would-be attackers a starting point for cracking their password. Downloading files from unknown or untrusted sources could expose one’s computer to ransomware, keyloggers, or any other type of computer virus. Criminals are constantly evolving their tactics to achieve their goals.

It is important for people to understand how to protect themself online, such as safe practices for posting online, how to discern whether a download link is legitimate, and how to create a strong password. First, do not click link any links in emails you not expecting. For example, if you receive an email from your bank asking to verify a transaction, browse to the site directly and login, or call customer support to verify the authenticity of the request. Second, while we want to share our travels and adventures with our friends, posting online that you are going on vacation could lead to someone breaking into your home because they know you are not home. Third, the best passwords are phrases that aren’t easily related back to something about that individual. Short, three word phrases are easy to remember and hard to crack, but be sure to modify them with upper and lower case letters, numbers, and special characters. Everyone can reduce their risk online by knowing what the common threats are and how to avoid them. 

Module 5 Discussion

Identify which theories you think best explain cybercrime and discuss what you like about that theory.

 I believe that the Neutralization theory and the behavioral theories best explain cybercrime. The Neutralization theory suggests that individuals may engage in cybercrime because there is no apparent victim. It is much harder to victimize a physical person in front of you, but I believe people find it much easier to victimize people they will never physically meet. I believe anonymity on the internet allows people to deny responsibility, and is a big contributor to cybercrime. For example, people tend to be much more aggressive towards others online using an account that is not associated with who they are, i.e., a burner account. Social media sites that are entirely anonymous, such as Reddit, tend to contain higher levels of aggressive behavior. These communities spawn toxic behavior, and encourage others to engage in that behavior, which ties into the behavioral theories discussed in this module. These online groups reject opinions that do not fit the general consensus, and members become openly hostile toward anyone who does not agree with them. I imagine many who participate in these communities want to fit in with a group. They find some sense of belonging within these online communities, and begin to disregard how toxic they can genuinely be. 

Module 6 Discussion

Watch this video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BpdcVfq2dB8

Pay attention to what the biggest risk of cyber threats are. After watching the video, post an entry in the discussion board describing what you think about the “human firewall.” 

In this TEDx talk, the main point that Rob May is attempting to convey is that cybersecurity is just as much a people problem as it is an IT problem. Rob May uses social media as an example of how easy it is to get private personal information out of people when it is disguised as a fun game for people to laugh at. They also show how an attacker can collect personal information and login credentials by creating a fake hotspot in a public place. Both of these scenarios illustrate how easy it is to become a victim of cybercrime. The presenter highlights the importance of training employees on the latest scams and vulnerabilities, and regular refresher training to reinforce this information. As Rob May points out, it takes six times for an intelligent person to retain information. Therefore, it is critical that companies invest the time and effort to build a good cybersecurity training program. No matter how many security appliances and firewalls are added to a network, it will always remain as vulnerable as its weakest link. As Rob May illustrated in his TEDx talk, the human element is the weakest link in any organization’s cybersecurity program. 

Module 7 Discussion

Watch this video. Please watch the video above by clicking on the link about a 12-year-old cyber security expert. 

Pay attention to how he has embedded himself into the cybersecurity culture.  Also, pay attention to how the ideas of knowledge, technology, and secrecy relate to his expertise. 

On the discussion board post an entry about how the video relates to something you read for this class – either from the readings or this module.  

The 12-year-old “cyber ninja” Reuben Paul displayed just how easy it can be to hack everyday devices and steal personal information in today’s digital age. While Reuben was able to hack a stuffed bear, any Internet of Things (IoT) device is equally as susceptible to being hacked. These devices often lack security measures, and are pre-configured with passwords that are publicly available or can be easily cracked. Once hacked, these devices can be used to watch or listen to people, or that could be used in botnet attacks. In fact, the largest Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack ever, the Mirai Botnet, primarily utilized IoT devices to take down Dyn, a DNS service provider. This is just one example of how easily these devices can be used for malicious purposes.

In this module, we learned about human factors, and I believe that resonates well with this interview with Reuben Paul. As consumers, we often take our privacy and security for granted, and often do not take additional measures to protect ourselves from digital threats. For example, despite numerous warnings from cybersecurity professionals and law enforcement, people continue to connect to public WiFi, and put their personal information at risk. In doing so, the risk to an individual’s personal information likely is not a consideration. They only want to get online, and do not believe they could become a victim until it happens to them. Unfortunately, tackling this issue is not easy, and would require society as a whole to change. Until that day, cybercriminals will continue to flourish.

Module 8 Discussion

Identify two research questions that researchers might address related to the social aspects of cybersecurity. 

One research question that researchers might address related to the social aspects of cybersecurity is how to identify and prevent disinformation campaigns online. Conspiracy theories and disinformation spread online with ease, and at a level not seen before. In general, I feel that most Americans have become distrustful of the government as a result. For the sake of our democracy, it is important to look into why people so readily believe untrusted sources online, and how to combat it. Awareness of the problem is an important first step. Unfortunately, Facebook ended its fact-checking policy, but I think it was helpful in determining what was real and what wasn’t. Perhaps distrustful domains could be flagged as such when visiting their site? But then who determines what sites cannot be trusted? It is a complicated problem, but one I believe is worth tackling.

Another research question I believe is worth addressing is how to tailor cybersecurity education to different demographics. The elderly are a primary target of phishing because they generally lack education about technology, and children are spending more time online than any previous generation. Obviously, both groups are going to require a different approach to educate them about safe online habits. Information about common online scams is probably more useful to adults, while information about spotting child predators would be greatly beneficial to children. Cybersecurity education needs to be greatly improved, but I believe a targeted approach such as this would be the best way to improve it as a whole.

Module 9 Discussion

What does economics have to do with cybersecurity?

I believe there is much overlap between economics and cybersecurity. First, financial gain is probably the most significant motivator for cybercriminals.  Stolen personal information can be sold for money on the dark web. The stolen identities are then used to extract as much money as possible from their victims. Toll scams that are prevalent right now seek to persuade victims to pay for nonexistent toll bills. These are just two examples, but it is apparent that most cybercrime is about making money. 

Cybercrime also impacts the economy because it could damage the reputation of any publicly traded company, which affects the organization’s stock price. For example, SolarWinds was hacked in 2020, which exposed the networks of more than 30,000 public and private organizations, including the US government. The attackers infected software updates to SolarWinds’ Orion software, which was then unknowingly distributed to their customers. As a result of the hack, Solarwinds stock plunged 23%, and the company’s reputation took a significant hit. 

The effects of cybersecurity on economics are not all negative. The development of the blockchain, for example, provides increased security for cryptocurrencies. A blockchain provides a distributed ledger that records transactions. Each transaction constitutes a block in the chain, and each block is hashed, making tampering impossible. Because the blockchain is decentralized and exists on many different computers, anyone attempting to alter the blockchain would have to someone alter it all PCs that contain a copy, an impossible task. This is just one example, but cybersecurity continues to improve and provide new protections for financial assets.

Module 10 Discussion

Why do you think individuals don’t report cybercrime victimization?

I think people do not report cybercrimes because of the negative social stigma associated with it. I think the first thing most people might say to someone who fell for an online scam is, “How could you fall for that?” This is blaming the victim, and something that society, especially cybersecurity professionals, should work to improve on. I have heard this rhetoric a lot from colleagues working in IT. However, we must never assume that because we understand something easily does not mean that it is an easy topic to understand or that everyone knows the same things we know.

Another reason I believe cybercrime goes unreported is the assumption that police do not have the resources to track down a perpetrator. If a local police department does not have resources to investigate a cybercrime, it can be reported to the Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3), which is a collaboration between the FBI and the National White Collar Crime Center (NW3C), or directly to the FBI. These agencies have more resources committed to combating and investigating cybercrime, and can launch an investigation for a reported crime. I suspect most people do not know that IC3 exists, so spreading awareness is important.