1. Nicholas II was the last Czar of Russia.
2. The Romanov family was in power for 281 years before Nicholas II.
3. Vladimir Lenin, who led he radical socialist Bolsheviks, took power when Nicholas II abdicated the throne.
4. Nicholas II and his family were executed after he abdicated the throne.
5. The White Russian Army were anti-Bolshevik Russians who wanted to rescue Nicholas II and his family because they were against the new rule of the Bolsheviks.
6. Alix was the granddaughter of Queen Victoria.
7. The mutation for hemophilia occurs on the X chromosome. This affects the inheritance because, if the disease is recessive like hemophilia is, then the females can be carriers of the disease and not display symptoms while the males either have the disease or do not. 
8. Being a carrier of a disease occurs when the disease is recessive, and a person is heterozygous. They can pass down the recessive disease alleles to their offspring without personally exhibiting any symptoms.
9. Males are not considered carriers of hemophilia because it is an X-linked chromosomal disease. Males only have one X chromosome, they will either have the recessive disease allele or the dominant wild type allele. 
10. Hemophilia is caused by a lack of factor VIII or factor IX proteins. The gene code for these proteins when clotting needs to occur. A lack of these proteins leads to the inability of the blood to clot effectively.
11. Hemophilia B is most likely shown in the pedigree chart.
12. The mutation that caused the hemophilia was an A-to-G mutation that was three base pairs upstream from exon four of the coagulation FIX gene. This causes issues with the splicing mechanism.
13. This mutation causes introns that would have been expressed to no longer be expressed. It also causes exons that would have been suppressed to be expressed. Because these introns and exons are not expressed properly, the body produces a faulty gene product
14.  

	X	Y
x	Xx	xY
X	XX	XY

The Punnett square above shows all of the allelic combinations for the children of Alix and Nicholas II. The second column in red can be ignored because that would be the possible gene combinations for a female child. The third column shows the possible allelic combinations for Alexis. Alexis had the top combination of alleles that is highlighted. He received a mutated x chromosome from Alix and a Y chromosome from Nicholas II.

15.

	X	Y
x	Xx	xY
X	XX	XY

 The Punnett Square above looks very similar to that of Alexis. This is the Punnett square for Leopold. His mother was a carrier of hemophilia and his father did not have hemophilia. The second column in red can be ignored because Leopold was a male. Leopold had the top highlighted allelic combination with the recessive hemophilic x chromosome from his mother and the Y chromosome from his father. Only males in the chart have hemophilia because the carriers married unaffected males, or the affected males married unaffected females. This means that it would be impossible to get the recessive xx combination which would define a hemophilic female. asdf;It is possible for a female to inherit hemophilia, but she must have an affected or a carrier mother and an affected father. 

16. It is possible for a female to inherit hemophilia, but she must have an affected or a carrier mother and an affected father.

17. Alexis’ hemophilia condition could have led to the Russian Revolution because his mother, Alix was German and believed that Rasputin could heal her son. This causes an uproar because it did not align with many of the beliefs of the Russian people. The Russians had Rasputin executed after he came to Russia.

18. The first grave that was discovered contained nine bodies and the second grave contained two people.

19. The first grave was discovered in July of 1991 and the second grave was discovered in August of 2007.

20. Nuclear DNA tests were performed to determine the sex of the remains. Some of the familial relationships were explored using nuclear DNA testing, but further mitochondrial DNA testing was performed to expand on the parental relationships between the females.

21. STR stands for short tandem repeat. It is a DNA testing strategy.

22. Prince Philips mitochondrial DNA was used because his great-aunt was Alix. This is a closer familial relationship than Elizabeth II had. 

23. Alexis and Maria were missing from the mass grave.

24. Although the mitochondrial DNA is inherited from the mother, it does not matter when testing if it is a male or female being tested. The Duke of Fife and Princess Xenia were distant maternal relatives of Nicholas II. These people are still living.

25. Nicholas II had a heteroplasmy present at 16169 which was not seen in the mitochondrial DNA of Princess Xenia or the Duke of Fife.

26. A heteroplasmy is when two or more genetically different mitochondria are in the cell.

27. The three types of DNA used were mitochondrial DNA, nuclear DNA, and Y chromosome markers. 

28. The Y chromosome markers were used to identify Alexis.

29. This DNA was obtained from the old bone fragments that were found in the second grave.

30. The daughter that was discovered in the second grave has been extensively debated, but according to Lannoy and Hermans (2010), Maria was the daughter that was in the second grave.

31. Anna Anderson claimed to be the missing descendant of Nicholas II. Her theory was disproved through mitochondrial DNA testing. 

32. Anna Anderson settled in Charlottesville, VA because that is where the Martha Jefferson Hospital is which is where all of the DNA tests were done. 

33. The source of Anna Anderson’s nuclear DNA was from her gut and hair. 

34. The sources of Nicholas’s and Alix’s DNA was their bones.

35. STR analyses were done on the DNA samples from Anna Anderson, Nicholas II, and Alix.

36. Anna Anderson’s mitochondrial DNA was compared to the Duke of Edinburgh and Carl Maucher.

37. A hypervariable region is a sequence of DNA that has more variation than the other portions of DNA.

38. The conclusions of the comparisons were that Carl Maucher and Anna Anderson were maternally related and that Anna Anderson and Franzisca Schanzkowska may be the same person. 

39. All of the children were accounted for in August of 2007 when the second grave was found.

40. This assignment better helped me understand sex-linked disorders and their inheritance patterns. It was also interesting to learn more about Russian history, although it was brutal.