In their article, “The Covert War for American Minds,” David Shedd and Ivana Stradner (2024) expose the sophisticated disinformation campaigns orchestrated by Russia, China, and Iran to undermine U.S. elections. They cite a 2024 case where Russia channelled $10 million through a Tennessee-based media startup to produce divisive social media content, aligning with Moscow’s “interest in amplifying U.S. domestic divisions” (Shedd & Stradner, 2024, p. 1). Russia employs AI-driven bot farms, fake profiles, and manipulated videos, such as a fabricated clip showing ballots being destroyed in Pennsylvania, to erode trust in electoral integrity (Shedd & Stradner, 2024). Iran targets specific candidates by leaking hacked materials from the Trump campaign, while China focuses on down-ballot races to “sow doubts about U.S. leadership” (Shedd & Stradner, 2024, p. 4). These efforts exploit social media’s global reach to manipulate public opinion and deepen polarization, posing a significant threat to democratic processes. In this Case Analysis, I will argue that Virtue Ethics demonstrates that these nations engaged in information warfare against the U.S. because their deceptive tactics undermine trust, justice, and civic order, rendering them unjustifiable. Similarly, U.S. interference in foreign elections using comparable methods would constitute information warfare and be unjustifiable, as it violates the virtues of honesty and fairness.
Analysis Using Prier’s Concepts and Virtue Ethics
Jarred Prier (2017) provides a robust framework for understanding social media as a tool of information warfare through the concept of “commanding the trend.” He explains, “Using existing online networks in conjunction with automatic ‘bot’ accounts, foreign agents can insert propaganda into a social media platform, create a trend, and rapidly disseminate a message faster and cheaper than through any other medium” (Prier, 2017, p. 52). This strategy relies on four key factors: a message that resonates with an existing narrative, a group of true believers predisposed to the message, a small cyber team to craft the content, and a network of automated bot accounts to amplify it (Prier, 2017). Russia’s interference in the 2016 and 2024 U.S. elections exemplifies this approach, with bot-driven campaigns amplifying divisive issues such as immigration, abortion, and U.S. support for Ukraine to deepen societal polarization (Shedd & Stradner, 2024). Prier notes, “A trending topic transcends networks and becomes the mechanism for the spread of information across social clusters” (Prier, 2017, p. 53), a tactic Russia employs through fake media sites, paid advertisements, and AI-generated content. Similarly, Iran’s leaking of hacked materials from the Trump campaign and China’s Spamouflage operation, which uses fake American profiles to criticize U.S. policies, demonstrate the same manipulative strategies (Shedd & Stradner, 2024).
These actions unequivocally constitute information warfare, as they weaponize information to coerce voter behavior and destabilize democratic institutions. Shedd and Stradner (2024) emphasize, “The goal of influence operations is to engineer a shift in enemy decision-making by shaping the views of the citizenry” (p. 4). By flooding social media with disinformation, these nations exploit the availability heuristic, where “the mind creates a shortcut based on the most—or most recent—information available” (Prier, 2017, p. 57). This psychological manipulation distorts public perception, as evidenced by Russia’s smear campaigns against Kamala Harris and false narratives questioning election integrity (Shedd & Stradner, 2024). The scale of these operations, enabled by social media’s mass reach, amplifies their impact, making them a potent tool for sowing discord.
Virtue Ethics, which prioritizes character traits such as honesty, justice, and temperance, deems these actions morally unjustifiable. Honesty demands truthfulness in public discourse, yet Russia, China, and Iran rely on deception, deploying “fake profiles that promote AI-generated content” and “links to websites that impersonate legitimate media” (Shedd & Stradner, 2024, p. 3). This violates the virtue of justice, which requires fairness in democratic processes, as these campaigns manipulate voters and undermine the integrity of elections. Prier underscores the manipulative nature of propaganda, stating, “Propaganda on its own cannot force its way into unwilling minds, neither can it inculcate something wholly new” (Prier, 2017, p. 56), highlighting how these nations exploit existing societal divisions. This lack of temperance—choosing chaos over constructive dialogue—further erodes civic trust. Shedd and Stradner (2024) note that the cumulative effect of these campaigns is to “seed chaos, discontent, and suspicion within a target population over an extended period” (p. 4), a direct affront to the virtuous pursuit of societal harmony.
If the U.S. were to engage in similar interference in foreign elections, it would also be committing information warfare and would be equally unjustifiable. Deceptive tactics, such as spreading false narratives or manipulating social media trends, would contradict the virtue of honesty and risk escalating global distrust, potentially destabilizing diplomatic relations. Virtue Ethics calls for a higher standard, one rooted in integrity and transparency. Shedd and Stradner (2024) advocate for this approach, stating, “The United States should not just fend off foreign adversaries by publicly exposing their actions; it should go on the offensive” through truthful narratives (p. 7). This would be in accordance with the virtue of courage, practicing a courageous devotion to democratic principles while building up resistance. It is also a display of prudence, making sure U.S. policy upholds moral credibility rather than contributing to international tensions. By stepping forward with open communication, the U.S. can push back against disinformation credibly while maintaining the ethical standards that promote cooperation and trust.
Analysis Using Morkevičius’ Concepts and Virtue Ethics
Valerie Morkevičius, in Gruszczak and Kaempf (2024), positions information warfare within the normative framework of jus ad vim. She argues, “Information-psychological efforts aimed at undermining states’ domestic cohesion and international soft power capabilities are grave enough to warrant characterization as uses of coercive force” (Gruszczak & Kaempf, 2024, p. 2). This framework applies directly to the disinformation campaigns by Russia, China, and Iran, which manipulate voter perceptions to weaken U.S. democratic cohesion (Shedd & Stradner, 2024). Morkevičius distinguishes between denial (withholding information) and deception (manipulating reality), asserting that “Concealment is morally problematic when it undermines individuals’ trust in each other, particularly when it leads to mistrust in trustworthy sources of information” (Gruszczak & Kaempf, 2024, p. 6). Russia’s fake media sites, Iran’s hacked leaks, and China’s Spamouflage operation exemplify deceptive concealment, masquerading as legitimate sources to mislead the public (Shedd & Stradner, 2024).
These actions constitute information warfare by coercing public opinion through psychological manipulation, a form of non-kinetic force that destabilizes societies. Morkevičius draws on Walzer’s critique of deceptive ambushes, arguing that such tactics in information warfare are impermissible because they “endanger non-combatants by making the opponent more likely to treat them as potential threats” (Gruszczak & Kaempf, 2024, p. 6). Russia’s false ballot-tampering videos and China’s fake American profiles erode trust in democratic institutions, aligning with Morkevičius’ concern that “tactics that significantly undermine order are morally impermissible” (Gruszczak & Kaempf, 2024, p. 4). Shedd and Stradner (2024) reinforce this, noting that “Russian operatives have spread incendiary messages on social media about hot-button issues… to deepen polarization and fractiousness in the United States” (p. 2). The deliberate targeting of societal cleavages, such as racial tensions or political divides, exacerbates disorder, threatening the moral end of peaceful coexistence.
Virtue Ethics further condemns these actions as violations of core character traits. The virtue of justice is undermined when foreign actors destabilize democratic institutions, as seen in Iran’s leaks designed to “foment unrest among Americans” (Shedd & Stradner, 2024, p. 4). Honesty is compromised by spin and outright lying, which Morkevičius deems unjustifiable: “Lying is unjustifiable, for reasons drawn both from a pragmatic perspective and virtue ethics” (Gruszczak & Kaempf, 2024, p. 5). These deceptive practices erode the trust necessary for democratic discourse, violating the virtue of temperance by prioritizing chaos over moderation. If the U.S. were to adopt similar tactics in foreign elections, it would violate these same virtues, deceiving foreign publics and risking escalation of global mistrust. Morkevičius’ principle of proportionality, which “encourages the economy of force” (Gruszczak & Kaempf, 2024, p. 4), suggests that the U.S. should pursue defensive measures, such as declassifying disinformation evidence, as Shedd and Stradner (2024) propose: “The Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency… should review and declassify material about information warfare” (p. 5). This approach aligns with the virtue of prudence, minimizing harm while fostering trust.
Moreover, Morkevičius’ emphasis on necessity requires that actions be essential to achieve moral ends (Gruszczak & Kaempf, 2024). Russia, China, and Iran’s indiscriminate disinformation campaigns fail this test, causing widespread harm without apparent strategic necessity, thus violating temperance. The U.S. ought to avert these types of tactics, instead using various platforms, including Radio Free Europe, as Shedd and Stradner (2024) recommend, to promote truthful narratives that uphold justice and order (p. 7). Again, Morkevičius’ principle of order underscores that actions should not sow widespread disorder akin to humanitarian crises (Gruszczak & Kaempf, 2024). These states’ disinformation campaigns destabilize civic trust and democratic order, creating chaos that is contrary to the moral telos of peaceful coexistence. Conversely, U.S. countermeasures need to be informed by virtuous restraint, using open communication to stabilize trust and order, as Shedd and Stradner (2024) suggest through coordinated efforts to expose foreign interference.
Should the U.S. mirror the identified deceptive techniques in foreign elections, it would engage in information warfare and be morally indefensible under Virtue Ethics. Using the identified false narratives or manipulating social media would betray honesty. Such actions would also erode trust both domestically and on an international level. Such actions could also fuel tensions, as foreign governments and publics grow wary of U.S. intentions. The results of all these would be mass destabilization diplomacy. Virtue Ethics requires integrity and transparency, compelling the U.S. to counter disinformation openly. Shedd and Stradner (2024) back such an assertion, stating that, “The United States should not just fend off foreign adversaries by publicly exposing their actions; it should go on the offensive” with fact-based narratives (p. 7). This embodies courage, underscoring a commitment to democratic values and prudence. Transparent engagement gives room for the U.S. to model virtuous leadership. This also helps them effectively counter disinformation while sticking to ethical principles that sustain global cooperation.
Conclusion
In summary, Russia, China, and Iran’s interference in US elections is an information war since their manipulative efforts frighten the voters and break democratic solidarity, violating the virtues of honesty, justice, and temperance. Prier’s “commanding the trend” model demonstrates how the efforts are amplified through social media, while Morkevius’ jus ad bellum model reveals their coercive nature and moral permissibility. Similarly, U.S. interference in foreign elections using deception would be information warfare and unjustifiable, contradicting virtuous governance. An objection might argue that geopolitical necessity justifies such tactics to counter adversaries. However, this risks escalating mistrust and undermining moral credibility, as “tactics that significantly undermine order are morally impermissible” (Gruszczak & Kaempf, 2024, p. 4). A counterview might propose limited, transparent influence operations, but Virtue Ethics prioritizes honesty to maintain trust. The broader implication is that democracies must model transparency to counter disinformation, as Shedd and Stradner (2024) advocate, while acknowledging the challenge of measuring proportionality in information warfare’s diffuse impacts. A limitation of this argument is the difficulty in quantifying psychological harm, necessitating further ethical scrutiny to refine responses to this evolving threat.





References
Gruszczak, A., & Kaempf, S. (Eds.). (2024). Routledge handbook of the future of warfare. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003299011
Prier, J. (2017). Commanding the trend: Social media as information warfare. Strategic Studies Quarterly, 11(4), 50–85.
Shedd, D. R., & Stradner, I. (2024, October 29). The covert war for American minds: How Russia, China, and Iran seek to spread disinformation and chaos in the United States. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/united-states/covert-war-american-minds